The purpose of this paper is to focus on the response attempted by German educationalist Wolfgang Klafki to the criticism of “key problems” (Schlüsselproblemen) in order to show that lessons dealing with key problems (Problemunterricht) were the opposite of “problem-solving lessons”.

　“Key problems” refers to a curriculum concept that Klafki proposed in the 1980s as “the common content core of international education”. As the name suggests, the basic motif was to organize the key issues that typically characterized the era as the reality of educational content to be addressed by children. The key-problem concept has been criticized from various quarters, especially since the 1990s, but in recent years there has been a tendency to evaluate this concept in relation to education for sustainable development (ESD/BNE).

　However, the equation of key problems with ESD/BNE requires careful consideration, because the similarities between the two are not the only relevant point of discussion: these similarities may lead to overlooking the differences that may also exist between the two seemingly very similar concepts. ESD/BNE has never hesitated to “solve” global problems, while Klafki has remained cautious about the very idea of problem-solving through teaching when discussing key problems. This paper aims to drive a wedge of difference into the problem-solution linkage tightly bound up in the pedagogical trope of “problem-solving lessons”.

　The paper first points out that the emphasis of problem-solving lessons was not on “problem-solving” but on “problem-setting”. Second, it shows that Klafki used his own logic to justify the criticism that this problem-setting was conducted arbitrarily by adults. Third, Klafki warned against amateurish problem-solving by children in the classroom. The goal of the problem lessons was to help children gain an understanding of the problem and an insight into the complexity and plurality of solutions. To put it simply, Klafki did not have in mind “how we can solve our own problems,” but rather “how others have tried to solve problems and why they have not been solved”. Based thereon, the paper concludes by driving a wedge into the problem-solution linkage.

　The purpose of this paper is to clarify empirically which teachers have the perception that “the victims of bullying are also responsible” - in other words, “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility” - by focusing on their self-image as teachers. The following three findings were obtained from an analysis of data derived from a questionnaire survey of junior high school teachers.

　First, teachers who have a strong self-image as “cheerful and friendly” are more likely to have “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility,” whereas teachers who have a strong self-image involving “expertise and sincerity” are less likely to do so. Second, teachers in the latter group are more likely to have “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility” as they get older, while teachers who are younger are less likely to have these perceptions. Third, when teachers who strongly identify themselves as “cheerful and friendly” are victims of bullying or harassment by students, their “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility” decrease, while when teachers who have a strong self-image involving “expertise and sincerity” are victims of bullying or harassment by students, their “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility” increase. Based on the above three findings, this paper derives both academic and practical implications.

　The academic implications of this study are its detailed clarifications of various aspects of teachersʼ “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility,” which have not been the subject of much research until now. In addition, by referring to the framework of teacher identity theory, this study also contributes to clarifying the impact of teachersʼ self-image as teachers on their perceptions of educational issues and their understanding of human relationships among students, as well as the side effects of this self-image. This study shows that teachersʼ professional identity can affect their perceptions and views on education, a finding considered a clear contribution to the development of teacher identity theory.

　One practical implication is the possibility of contributing to teacher training. This study reveals that teachersʼ self-image affects their “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility,” and that these perceptions also change depending on the teacherʼs age and whether or not they have experienced being bullied or harassed by students in the past. Based on the results of this analysis, it is possible to prevent teachers from consciously having “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility” through anti-bullying training and other measures.

　As a future issue, it is necessary to verify whether similar analysis results to those in this paper can be obtained in surveys of junior high school teachers nationwide. There is also room for verification as to whether the findings obtained in this paper can be confirmed in teachers of other school types, such as elementary and high schools. It is also necessary to clarify the process by which the specific self-image as a teacher is linked to “perceptions of bullying victimsʼ responsibility.”

　This study examines the significance of the Alternative School Teacher Education Program (ASTEP) implemented by Indiana University in the transformation of public education in the United States during the 1970s.

　In the 1970s, the U.S. underwent a transformation in public education, which was marked by growing criticism of the societal assumption that existing schools were the only option and of the uniformity of public schools. This era witnessed the exploration of diverse and flexible approaches to public education. It was particularly characterized by the shift of alternative education from “outside” the public school system to “inside” the system and by the adoption of measures to increase the diversity of public schools. Initially, alternative schools were intended to be equitable options accessible to all children. Previous research has focused on the innovativeness of these schools as a catalyst for public school reform. However, the specific reasons why alternative schools could drive public school reform and the initiatives that supported these efforts have not been sufficiently explored.

　Indiana University was the first higher education institution in the United States to engage in both the research and the practice of “public alternative schools.” The ASTEP program allowed students to work as interns at alternative schools for a year while pursuing a masterʼs degree. The program was based on an image of the alternative school teacher that differed from that of a “good” teacher. Owing to the difficulty in training teachers to transform existing schools, a model of coexistence between existing and alternative schools was adopted to diversify teacher education.

　Favorable evaluations of ASTEP were directed toward the facts that the program (1) served as a source of teachers with a desire to enact reforms; (2) provided professional support from the university and served as a forum for dialogue; and (3) established relationships with other alternative schools and promoted teacher awareness.

　ASTEP played several important roles, including (1) overcoming the challenges of school reform; (2) serving as a common platform that enabled mutual exchange among teachers from existing schools, alternative school teachers, university personnel, and school district stakeholders; (3) promoting mutual transformation, thus improving the practices of both alternative and public school teachers; and (4) not only integrating alternative education into the formal system but also driving changes in the educational perspectives of school district boards and administrators. In conclusion, the significance of ASTEP lies in its efforts to promote public education reform from an inclusive perspective of both existing and alternative schools. It fostered collaboration and mutual transformation by using the diversity and heterogeneity of teachers as catalysts.

　This study proposes a four-quadrant model that integrates Erich Frommʼs (1976/2020) “having” and “being” modes with Judyth Sachsʼ (2001) theory of professional identity to overcome the ambiguity in and surrounding the discourse of teacher empowerment. The model classifies empowerment strategies whose ambiguity often obscures discussions on teacher competencies and professionalism. Drawing from 52 peer-reviewed articles published in the flagship journal of the Japanese Society for the Study on Teacher Education from 2014 to 2023, this study identifies key patterns in how research has framed teacher empowerment within its discourse space.

　The four-quadrant model organises discourses along two intersecting dimensions: (1) extrinsic versus intrinsic sources of professional strength and (2) abstract-collective versus empirical-individual professional identity. By mapping empowerment strategies within these dimensions, the model distinguishes approaches that emphasise resource acquisition and standardised competencies from those that value the intrinsic growth and relational practice of teachers. The study analyses research designs based on their points of departure, methodological focus, and stated objectives, revealing that a significant body of research aligns with the focus on teachersʼ “having” extrinsically defined properties. Approximately 53% of the studies prioritised extrinsically defined competencies, often positioning teachers as passive recipients of policy mandates rather than active agents of professional growth.

　In contrast, research adopting an intrinsically driven “being” approach accounted for 24% of the studies. These findings highlight a pronounced imbalance, as many studies perpetuate narratives centred on the enhancement of extrinsically defined and externally measurable capabilities, reinforcing policy-oriented discourses. The model further reveals nuanced patterns, such as the type of research structure representing a consistent reliance on extrinsically defined competencies and standards at all stages of inquiry, from framing research questions to proposing outcomes. This classification of discourses underscores the limitations of approaches that view professional development primarily through the lens of compliance and measurable outputs.

　In proposing a comprehensive approach to classify and critique teacher empowerment discourses, this study addresses the need for a more balanced perspective that bridges extrinsically reinforced expectations with intrinsically generated capacities for professional practice. The four-quadrant model not only clarifies the dynamics of empowerment but also encourages a shift toward more inclusive and dialogic professional development strategies. This contribution is significant for reimagining teacher education as a field where professional growth is shaped not solely by extrinsically defined goals and standards but also by teachersʼ intrinsic motivations and shared commitments to their profession and professional practice.

　In Japan, transitioning from education to employment remains a significant challenge, particularly for women who complete their education at the high school level. Support is essential for these young women, who often face intersecting disadvantages―such as generational, academic, and gender barriers―in securing stable employment.

　Currently, most Japanese high-school students secure jobs through school-mediated placement systems, where their schools directly coordinate employment opportunities with companies. However, recent discussions have advocated for reducing the scale of this system by encouraging greater participation from private employment placement agencies. It has also been proposed that school-mediated systems should primarily focus on students who require substantial extensive support from teachers or those who struggle to find employment early on.

　Existing research has not sufficiently addressed the relationship between reducing these school-mediated systems and gender. This study investigates these dynamics by focusing on the strength of linkages between high schools and companies.

　Conventionally familiar linkages between high schools and companies have been termed “strong linkages,” and those that do not fit the characteristics thereof “weak linkages.” The paper analyzes the relationships of linkage strength with the support provided by teachers for students in need and with the gender of high school students who have used school-mediated systems. Data on career paths from five high schools and interviews with 15 teachers were used for the analysis.

　The findings reveal several key points. First, teachers prioritize strong linkages to support students requiring significant guidance or those unable to secure employment early on. Second, female students are less likely than male students to utilize strong linkages. Third, this discrepancy arises because female students often aim for jobs in industries dominated by women, which tend to involve weaker linkages. Fourth, in some cases, teachers have taken proactive steps to expand access to strong linkages for female students. However, these efforts are frequently influenced by male studentsʼ job-seeking activities.

　If support for high school students from private employment agencies increases, schools will primarily use strong linkages to provide job placements, which could make it even more difficult for girls to take advantage of school support. A gender perspective is necessary when discussing the employment status of high school students. In addition, high schools should review the specific content of their employment support and career education from a gender-based perspective.

　In contemporary society, various issues surrounding children―such as poverty, school non-attendance, disability, and minority ethnicity―tend to be institutionally recognized and addressed through classification into specific categories. Conversely, children whose difficulties do not fit into existing frameworks often lack institutional visibility and are less likely to emerge as targets of support. This study seeks to clarify how students enrolled solely in regular classrooms perceive, in multiple ways, students who attend in-school educational support centers but do not fall clearly into any institutional category. This paper focuses on the “X Classroom,” an in-school educational support center located in a mid-sized public elementary school. Unlike educational support centers established outside schools to support children not attending school, in-school educational support centers are designed to provide a calm and secure environment within the school for children who find it difficult to attend class in regular classrooms. These classrooms accommodate not only students with tendencies toward school non-attendance but also those who feel discomfort within regular classrooms.

　Based on the case analysis of data obtained through field observation, it was found that surrounding students tended to perceive the target students through a dichotomous lens similar to that of “non-disabled-disabled,” framing them within a “support-provider-support-receiver” relationship. In doing so, they often refrained from holding the target students accountable for unreasonable words or actions. However, influenced by the physical environment and unique nature of the center, their perception sometimes shifted from “support-provider-support-receiver” to “peer-peer,” giving rise to feelings of benign envy toward the target students who were free to spend time in the center. In particular, surrounding students with a strong desire to belong to the center often experienced relative deprivation, stemming from the awareness that they themselves could not access the same freedoms enjoyed by the target students. Furthermore, depending on their own position and characteristics within the regular classroom, these surrounding students sometimes developed feelings of malicious envy toward the target students. In these cases, they attempted to self-justify their participation in regular classroom instruction by framing themselves as “superior,” categorizing the target students through a “superior-inferior” relationship. This process appeared to function as a coping mechanism to ease the cognitive dissonance and relative deprivation they experienced.

　The analysis revealed that children who do not fit into clearly defined institutional categories such as “students with disabilities” or “school non-attendees” are, in practice, categorized by their peers in multiple ways―as “support-receivers,” as “peers,” or, in cases where peers sought self-justification, as “inferiors.” The membership categories to which these target students are assigned are not fixed or singular, but dynamically shaped by the surrounding studentsʼ contexts, personal attributes, desire to access the center, and affective responses. It was further revealed that these surrounding students, while resonating with the responses imposed by teachers, also developed their own diverse perceptions of the target students―perceptions not fully determined by institutional labeling, but instead arising from the interpretive frameworks shaped by their own positions and lived contexts.

　This study examines the exploration of class organization at the Tokyo Metropolitan Kita School for the Physically Handicapped in the 1960s and 1970s, specifically focusing on teachersʼ practices regarding special classes for children with severe disabilities. This paper uses terms from the period in question which may be considered inappropriate today.

　In Japanʼs postwar era, children with severe disabilities were often excluded from formal education, deemed ineligible due to systemic barriers including a lack of accessible schooling options. The development of special classes at Kita Special School played a crucial role in providing educational opportunities for these children. While these classes provided educational access, they also generated internal divisions and tensions within the school.

　Teachers initially introduced these classes as pragmatic solutions to address the diverse needs of the schoolʼs students with severe disabilities. Over time, these classes became formalized, received official recognition, and were expanded to accommodate an increasing number of students. The pioneering efforts of Kita Special School included accommodating all applicants in 1967, an unprecedented initiative in Tokyo that stemmed from the collective actions of teachers and parents from Kita Special School as well as staff from the adjacent Kita Ryoikuen Hospital for Cerebral Palsied Children. However, the establishment of special classes perpetuated segregation within the school, raising concerns about the isolation of students and the limitations of their integration with peers in regular classes.

　As the number of enrolled children with severe disabilities increased, so did the complexity of classroom management and teaching methodologies. Teachers grappled with questions about the adequacy of separate educational settings and integrated approaches. Through autonomous practice, many educators at Kita Special School sought to bridge the divide between regular and special classes by experimenting with innovative teaching methods and flexible class structures.

　In March 1973, Kita Special School dissolved its special classes and reintegrated students into grade-level classrooms. This decision was facilitated by multiple factors, including increased teacher collaboration, the introduction of flexible class configurations, and the adoption of a multiple-teacher system starting in April the same year. This transition reflects a shift in educational philosophy, recognizing caregiving tasks as integral to teaching children with severe disabilities.

　The process of establishing and later dissolving special classes at Kita Special School was part of a continuous and open-ended effort by teachers to seek the best possible education for children with severe disabilities. The study emphasizes that it was through ongoing discussion and reflective practice grounded in everyday encounters with children that teachers sought to build an educational environment responsive to those who had long been excluded from formal schooling.