This study intends to clarify the chronology of the adoption of the Assignment Man-to-Man Defense over the focus on Man-to-Man Defense in the late 1920’s through the adoption of the Five-man Two-line Defense in the first half of the 1930’s.

Historical sources used in this study are comprised of basketball instruction manuals and magazines, as well as sports magazines that contain articles about basketball, which were issued in Japan from the late 1920’s to the first half of the 1930’s.

The results of this study can be summarized as follows.

As a defense tactic, Five-man Two-line Defense Zone Defense was adopted in Japan in the late 1920’s. At the time, guards had limited participation in offense, so in opposition to Five-man Two-line Defense Zone Defense, offense was performed by three people, the two forwards and the single center. Then, from around the end of the 1920’s, one guard usually participated in offense, and so offense participation rose to four people. Disadvantages began to occur such as, “The forward is likely to be attacked by the forward of the opposing team” and “Defense is difficult when the offensive player is entering and exiting the defense area,” which lead to the guards becoming involved in offense.

Therefore, teams began to appear from around 1931 that adopted the Assignment Man-to-Man Defense, which made it possible to overcome the drawbacks of Five-man Two-line Defense Zone Defense.

We examined the total energy expenditure (TEE) and physical activity level (PAL) in 9 sprint athletes (SP group)and 7 endurance athletes (EN group) during the week before a competition. TEE was determined by the doubly labeled water method, and PAL was calculated by dividing the TEE value by the resting energy expenditure value. The TEE was found to be 3775±747 kcal/day in the SP group and 4571±734 kcal/day in the EN group, whereas the PAL was found to be 2.21±0.52 in the SP group and 2.77±0.51 in the EN group. The TEE and PAL values in EN group were significantly higher than those in the SP group (p<0.05). Moreover, we compared the TEE with the estimated energy requirement (EER) during the normal training period, which was determined using the dietary recommended intake (DRI) for athletes shown by Japan Institute of Sports Science; the EER was significantly lower than the TEE in both groups (p<0.05). Therefore, we believe that the EER calculated using DRI during the normal training period underestimated the TEE during the week before a competition. These results suggest that it is necessary for athletes to determine a specific PAL value for estimating EER during the week before a competition, while considering the different characteristic of the sports. And we believe that it is needed for sprint athletes to determine the lower PAL value during the week before a competition than the normal training period of DRI.

This study aimed to investigate whether periodic examinations of oxidative stress are a valid index for evaluating physical conditioning in Ekiden (long distance) runners. Twelve long distance runners (Mean age: 19.8±0.6 years, mean body weight: 54.5±5.0 kg, mean % fat: 5.5±1.8%) participated as subjects in this investigation. Oxidative stress (diacron reactive Oxygen Metabolites: d-ROMs levels) and antioxidant capacity (biological Anti-Oxidant Potential: BAP) were evaluated at the end of each month during a period of July to October, using the free radicals and reactive oxygen analyzer. Additionally, we estimated the BAP/d-ROMs ratio (B/R ratio) as a measure of oxidative balance. The total running distance during these 4 months was 2871.5±397.6 km (range: 2,166 km～3,437 km). The average running distance for the 12 runners in July, August, September, and October was 627.9±180.4 km, 771.4±145.6 km, 803.4± 106.4 km, and 668.8±81.5 km, respectively. With the decrease in the running distance from September through October, the mean monthly d-ROMs levels gradually decreased (p<0.05), but the mean monthly B/R ratio became higher (p<0.05). A significant positive correlation of 0.455 (p<0.01) was observed between the mean monthly running distance and the mean monthly d-ROMs levels; however, this correlation was not observed between the mean monthly running distance and the mean monthly BAP. Alternatively, a significant negative correlation of -0.450 (p<0.01) was observed between the mean monthly running distance and the mean monthly B/R ratio. The subjects participated in the Hakone Ekiden preliminary contest held on October and stood fourth. These results suggest that the periodic examinations of oxidative stress are a valid index for evaluating physical conditioning in Ekiden runners.

In the cerebral cortex, the prefrontal area has many key human functions; in a word, it’s important for ideas and emotions. In addition, the prefrontal area takes part in working memory and linguistics. Activating the function of prefrontal area is important to prevent dementia. On the other hand, it is thought that finger motions activate the function of human brain. It is thought that asymmetric motion, which is used in rhythmics, frequently has a good effect on human brain. In addition, it is thought that asymmetric motion prevents dementia. So it is important to examine the influence of asymmetric motion on the prefrontal area.

In this study, we investigated how the changes in cerebral oxygenation are influenced by symmetric motion and asymmetric motion of the fingers. We investigated changes in cerebral oxygenation during both motions with Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). Middle frontal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus in the prefrontal area are more active with asymmetric motion than by symmetric motion with a significant difference. So asymmetric motion of the fingers can accelerate activity of middle frontal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus. These areas take part in working memory and linguistics. These area are activated with working memory exercises and copying motions. In addition, these areas are activated with hard exercise.

In this study, asymmetric motion of fingers with minimal energy consumption activated these areas. Symmetric motion did not activate theses areas, so it is suggested that a simple asymmetric motion can activate the middle frontal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus. Our next study will be to test the theory that asymmetric motion can accelerate working memory and can prevent dementia.

In this study, a goalkeeper training program for children under twelve years old, developed in Germany, and a guideline for training goalkeepers under twelve, developed by Japan Football Association were compared.

After analyzing the two programs, a new goalkeeper training program which could be used by local clubs in Japan with the aim of promoting the skill of goalkeeping in Japan was suggested.

The results are shown below.

1. In comparing the goalkeeper training programs for children under twelve years old in Germany and in Japan, seven similarities and three differences are found.

2. Components to consider for a goalkeeper training program, are measures to promote an improvement in individual physical coordination, skills, and ability to plan strategy. Also, issues to consider are ways to relieve possible mental distress of the players, to insure enough time for field-play training, and that even coaches with no experience as a goalkeeper can conduct the program.

3. On the basis of issues mentioned above, a seven component goalkeeper training program is suggested.

The program is divided into four stages, according to children’s skills, their understanding of tactical behavior, and the difficulty of the basic goalkeeper skills. Also, each of the Goalkeeper Training Program components from the first stage to the fourth stage is organized so that coaches carry out the trainings more than twice at every stage.

[Objective] The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of increased dietary protein in elderly participants during strength training.

[Methods] This study was a randomized controlled clinical trial. Twenty-three participants (average age of 69.1 years) were recruited to perform a 3-month twice per week strength-training program with or without an intervention to increase protein intake. The 23 participants were randomly distributed into a strength training only group (n=12) or a strength training combined with nutritional intervention group (n=11). Three registered dietitians educated the nutritional intervention group once every 3 weeks to facilitate increased intake of protein-rich foods( e.g., meat, fish, soybeans, and dairy products).

[Results] Protein intake of the nutrition intervention group significantly increased to 18.3 g/day during the 3-month study period. However, no significant difference was observed for energy, carbohydrate, and lipid intake levels between the strength-training only group and the nutritional intervention group. Our principal analysis revealed 4 component patterns and component-1 was labeled as exercise capacity. This component score significantly increased during the strength training period in both groups; however, analysis of covariance (parallelism test) revealed that both groups had an identical correlation coefficient (p=0.975).

[Discussion] In contrast to protein intake studies focused on supplements, increased intake of protein-rich foods did not increase the efficacy of strength training in the study participants. This outcome may result from age associated dysfunctional intestinal absorptive capacity and/or mastication power for proteins.

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the relationships between social supports with teammates and athletic identity, and the relevance in athletic identity and sport commitment. In addition, this study examined the process leading to actual sport behavior. Participants were 520 collegiate student athletes (male: 362, female: 158). The result of the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), providing social supports for teammates determine their athletic identity, and athletic identity influences sport commitment. In addition, the result of examining the relationships of the sport commitment and actual sport behavior indicted the significant causal relationship. Thus, the result of this study demonstrated that providing supports for teammate was an important factor for improving sport participation (time×frequency×intension).

The purpose of this study is to clarify the relationship between the shape of the arch of the foot and play activities in children when they return home from kindergarten. Furthermore, the length and type of play activity after returning home, as well as the children’s center of gravity, footprint and floating toes (measured from data of the sole of the foot) were investigated in this study. The subjects of this study were 124 3-5-year-old children whose height, weight, and data of the soles of their feet as well as a questionnaire from their parents could be obtained. On the basis of the results of the questionnaire, the children were classified into two groups: the high play activity group (48 children) and the low play activity group(76 children).

The results are written below.

1. Indoor play time was significantly (t=3.24, P<0.01; t=8.52, P<0.01) longer than outdoor play time in both the high play activity group and the low play activity group. This tendency was weaker in the high play activity group than the low play activity group.

2. When comparing the high play activity group with the low play activity group, it is evident that the right foot arch index was significantly (t=2.22, P<0.05) higher and the left foot had the tendency (t=1.96, P=0.052) to be higher.

3. When comparing the high play activity group with the low play activity group, the center of gravity of the right foot was more forward (t=2.05, P<0.05), and the inverse trapezoid degree of heel width and foot width showed a tendency to be smaller (t=1.92, P=0.057). However, differences between the center of gravity and the inverse trapezoid degree of the left foot were not detectable.

4. When comparing the high play activity group with the low play activity group, the detectable ratio of floating toes on “only left feet” was significantly (P<0.05) lower. However, significant differences between groups could not be observed with regards to“ only right foot”,“ either the left or right foot”, and the“ left and right feet”.

The results show that children who are active when returning home from kindergarten have a higher ratio of outdoor play time and have a more developed the arch of the foot than children who are not very active and play quietly.

This research examined whether coaching from a mental coach, who specializes in working with athletes, will improve athletes’ motivation to perform well. 9 members of a Double Dutch team in a university were examined in regards to their mental performance improvement after 4 coaching sessions, over a period of 6 weeks. The diagnostic inventory of psychological-competitive ability for athletes (DIPCA.3), which consists of 5 factors and 12 scales, to evaluate the mental coaching in regards to the athletes’ psychological-competitive ability.

The scales of“ belligerence”,“ self-realization”,“ will for victory”,“ self-confidence”, and“ cooperativeness” were increased significantly during observed period. But, scales of“ self-control”,“ relaxation” and “concentration ability” were almost unchanged during the period. There was a significant relationship between the scales of “self-realization” and “self-confidence”. Members who had high motivation for improving their ability in the start of this intervention had higher wills to obtain victory than those who didn’t score as high. Members, who set their sights high for playing ability, responded low in the scale of“ cooperativeness”.

The post-intervention test showed that 4 factors and 8 scales were increased during the observed period. Therefore, mental coaching was useful for improving the athletes’ psychological-competitive ability. In regards to the three scales which did not show a change, there were positive comments noted when subjects wrote their personal reflections.

Therefore, continuous intervention by mental coaches would be effective on these scales also. It is surmised that the motivation of the subjects and their manner of goal setting when the mental health coaching was introduced, influenced the results.

The purpose of this study was to determine the association between low back pain (LBP) and physical characteristics in male university ice hockey players. The subjects were 29 male university ice hockey players. Based on the results of Osaka City University (OCU) Test Survey that we conducted for all players, they were divided into 2 groups: the Low Back Pain Group (LBP) (n=9) and the Non-Low Back Pain Group (non-LBP) (n=20).

We surveyed body height, body weight, BMI, age, years of experience, range of motion, joint flexibility, muscle tightness, and hip abductor muscle strength.

In ice hockey players, the results indicated significantly lower hip abductor muscle strength (P<0.05), and higher range of motion of right hip abduction (P<0.05), right knee extension (P<0.05), and finger floor distance( FFD) in the LBP group than in the non-LBP group (P<0.01). In the right knee extension range of motion left-right difference of the opposite side was observed as significant (P<0.05). We considered that relative right hip abductor muscle strength, and range of motion of right hip abduction, right knee extension, and FFD have a certain effect on LBP in male university ice hockey players.

The purpose of this study is to help improve the educational activities in Japanese educational institutions overseas; through improving the teaching skills of teachers, improving children’s physical fitness, and raising their interest toward lifetime physical activities.

The teachers’ work load has been increasing in its quality and quantity due to the diversification of individualized support for children, parents’ expectations towards their children’s education, and the academic development regarding the training of Japanese educators who will lead the global society of the future.

Accordingly, the improvement of teachers’ teaching skills has become an urgent problem. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified that“ physical inactivity” is now the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality and published a global recommendation to every country. Physical disability problems have also been a common issue around the world.

This study of the actions in Japanese educational institutions overseas, which have very strict conditions today, would certainly be a part of the solution to our educational issues.

In small classes, children’s interpersonal relationships tend to be limited, and it could be difficult to encourage their collaboration in physical education classes. In this study, the effect of the physical education classes using ICT (tablet PC and cloud computing) between two schools on children’s collaborations in small size elementary schools in remote areas was verified. Both classes consisted of three children of the 5^th and 6^th grades. The children recorded their own exercises and messages as movie files for the partner class, and took photos of study cards using the tablet PC, and then uploaded the information into a shared cloud server. The children checked the movies and photos from the partner in their physical education classes. The effects of this practical study were assessed by movie observations of children’s attitude in the class, confirmations of the expressions in their study cards, and investigative interviews of the teachers. As a result, these interchanges between two small classes using ICT, enhanced children’s thinking and discussion in their physical education classes. By the observations of the classes, children tended to think and discussed how to advise the partner class, and think about their own movement from their partner’s messages. In their study cards, children noted their partner’s strong and weak points, and these interchanges motivated the partner class. The teachers of each class mentioned the efficacy of the interchanges using ICT in this study for children’s collaborative attitudes. Furthermore, the teachers insisted that these interchanges also enhanced teachers in regards to their teaching materials and teaching techniques. In conclusion, using ICT between small classes in remote areas, such as in this study, positively effected children’s collaborations in physical education classes, and it gave opportunities for interchanges for teachers too.